[*S 367 
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\jp the TREE 

§J THE OLIVE 

Sf/ THE OIL 



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No. 1 The Olive Branch. 

No. 2 The Flowers of the Olive in bloom. 

No. 3 An enlarged flower consisting of calyx, 

lobes, two stamina and one pistil. 
No. 4 Showing half-section of the Olive. 
No. 5 Showing stone of the Olive. 



four 



THE TREE, THE OLIVE, THE OIL 

IN THE 

OLD AND NEW WORLD 



BY 

JOHN HURLEY, PH. G. 

Trustee Albany College of Pharmacy 
Trustee of Ray Brook Tubercular Sanitarium 
Member State Board of Pharmacy 



Copyrighted 1919 by 
JOHN HURLEY, PH. G. 



NOV i2!9!9 



©CI.A535833 



THIS BOCK I 
DEDICATE TO THE MEMORY 
OF MY BELOVED MOTHER 

ELLEN HURLEY 



Hail to Minerva's famous tree, 

Bearing Olives filled with oil; 
A wondrous aid to health and strength 

Well repaying care and toil. 
Great has been the Olive s blessing 

To the old world and the new — 
May its orchards thrive and prosper — 

Yielding fruit the ages through. 



HISTORY OF THE TREE. 

Its original habitation is very uncertain, but it may 
be assumed that it was brought from the central table 
land of Southern Asia by the Indo Greek progenitors 
of the Greeks and Romans, by them introduced into 
Southern Europe, probably Greece. 

At its transplanting into Asia it was in its wild state, 
and there the cultivation of olives is supposed to have 
begun. Also it is thought to be indigenous to Egypt. 

The Phoenicians, the first far-wandering seamen, 
probably took the olive to Carthage, from which city 
the traders bore it to Spain, first as oils, for which gold 
bars were obtained ; then later the seeds, sprouts and 
roots for cultivation. 

The Phcenecian colony where Marseilles stands im- 
ported olives into France twenty-five hundred years 
ago. The fragrant olive tree is found in China and 
Japan, its leaves being used to perfume Chinese teas. _ 

The question is not clearly stated when we ask if 
such and such olive trees of a certain locality are really 
wild (indigenous). They may have been sown by man 
or birds at a very early epoch : for this tree is remark- 
able for its longevity. The ancients limited its existence 
to two hundred years. But modern authors assert that 
in climates suited to its constitution, it survives its fifth 
century. The Monks of Jerusalem affirm that the olives 
of the Garden of Gethsemane are the same that wit- 
nessed the agony of Christ. 



Later statements are made that the trees easily reach 
the age of a thousand years. 

The effect of the sowing is a naturalization, which 
is equivalent to an extension of area. The point in 
question, therefore, is to discover what was the home of 
the species in very early prehistoric times, and how by 
different means of transport this area has grown larger. 

The wild olive, called in botanical books the variety 
sylvestris, or oleaster, is distinguished from the culti- 
vated olive tree by a smaller fruit. At what remote 
period of human progress the wild olive passed under 
the care of the husbandman and became the fruitful 
prarden olive, it is impossible to conjecture. Therefore, 
it is not by the study of living olive trees that this 
question can be answered. It must be found in what 
countries the cultivation began and how it was propa- 
gated. The more ancient it is in any region the more 
probable it becomes that the species had existed here 
fro n. the time of those geological events, which occurred 
before the coming of prehistoric man. 

The frequent reference to the plant in the Bible ; the 
importance attached to its produce; its implied abun- 
dance in the land of Canaan ; the prominent place it has 
I s held in the economy of the inhabitants of Syria . 
lead us to consider that country the birthplace of the 
c -1 ivated olive, whence it was introduced into Africa 
and the south of Europe. 

There is little doubt that long before the assertion 
of Pliny that no olives existed in Italy in the reign of 
Tarquinius Priscus, it was grown in Africa by the 
Carthaginians and in the south of Gaul at the colony 
of Massila. Although Fenestella tells us "That in the 
year of Rome 173, being the reign of Tarquinius 
Priscus, it did not exist in Italy. Spain or Africa." 

Its prehistoric area probably extended from Syria 
toward Greece, for the wild olive is very common along 
the southern coast of Asia Minor, where it forms regu- 
lar forests. 

An improved variety, possessed at first by some 
small tribes, was slowly distributed to adjacent tribes. 
And yielding profusely with little labor that oily matter 



Page two 



so essential to healthy life in the dry, hot climate of the 
east, the gift of that fruitful tree in that primitive age, 
became a symbol of peace and good will among the 
warlike barbarians. 

At a later period, with the development _ of maritime 
enterprise, the oil was conveyed as an article of trade 
to the neighboring Pelasgic and Ionian nations, and the 
plant doubtless soon followed. 

The earliest Hebrew books mention the olive sait, or 
zeit, both wild and cultivated. It was one of the trees 
prominent in the land of Canaan. As has been previ- 
ously stated, the olive was first mentioned in Genesis 
at the time of the flood. Taking into account this inci- 
dent of Holy Writ, it may be added that discoveries of 
modern learning show that the Mount Aarat of the 
Bible must be the east of the mountain in Armenia 
which bears that name, but which was anciently called 
Masis. 

A French writer has placed the mountain in question 
in the Hindu Kush, even near the sources of the Indus. 
This theory leads one to believe it near the land of the 
Aryans, yet the olive has no Sanskrit name, not even 
in that form from which the Indian languages are 
derived. 

If the olive had then as now existed in the Punjab, 
the Eastern Aryans in their migrations to the south 
would naturally have given it a name. Also if it had 
been known in the Mazanderam to the south of the 
Caspian Sea, as at the present day, the Western Aryans 
would have known it. 

To these negative indications it can only be objected, 
that the wild olive attracts no considerable attention. 
Also that the idea of extracting oil possibly arose late 
in this part of Asia. 

Babylonia grew no olive trees, its inhabitants making 
use of oil of Sesame. It is certain that a country so 
subject to inundation was not at all favorable to the 
cultivation or even growing of the olive. 

It is not known if there is a name Zend, but the 
Semitic word "Sait'' dates from a remote antiquity, for 
it is found in modern Persian "Seitum" and in Arabic 



Page three 



"Zaitum." It even exists in modern Turkish among 
the Tartars of the Crimea, "Seitum," which may sig- 
nify that it is of Turanian origin, or from the remote 
epoch when the Turanian and Semitic people inter- 
mixed. 

The ancient Egyptians cultivated the olive tree which 
they called "Tat." Several botanists have ascertained 
the presence of branches or leaves of the olive in the 
Sarcophagi. Nothing is more certain. It would be 
interesting to know to what dynasty belong the most 
ancient mummy cases, in which olive branches have 
been found. The oil found in Pleban tombs was prob- 
ably imported from Syria. 

The Egyptian name, quite different to the Semitic, 
shows an existence more ancient than the earliest 
dynasties. 

In Cyrenaica the olive was much grown and the 
harvest of oil was considerable ; but it is not said that 
the olive was found in its wild state there. On the 
contrary, the quantity of oil mentioned seems to point 
to a cultivated variety. Kralik (a very accurate bot- 
anist) on a journey to Tunis and into Egypt, did not 
anywhere find the olive growing wild. Only the culti- 
vated olive is found in Egypt. It is doubtless from the 
southern coast of Asia Minor and in the Archipelago 
that the Greeks early knew the tree. If they had not 
known it on their own territory, but had received it 
from the Semites, they would not have given it the 
special name elaia, whence the Latin olea. 

As stated previously, the Goddess Minerva carried 
the olive from the north of Greece into Sicily and Sar- 
dinia. It is more than possible that this may have been 
done by the Phoenicians, but in support of the idea that 
the species or a perfect variety was introduced by the 
Greeks. It may be mentioned here that the Semitic name 
sett has left no trace in the islands of the Mediterranean. 
The Graeco-Latin name is found here as in Italy, while 
upon the neighboring coast of Africa and in Spain the 
names are Egyptian and Arabic, as will be explained 
later. 



Page four 



Whenever the olive may have been transplanted on the 
Hellenic Peninsula, all traditions point to the limestone 
hills of Attica as the seat of its first cultivation. 

In the famous Iliad the presence of the olive tree 
in the garden of Alcinous and other familiar allusions 
show it to have been known when the Odyssy was 
written. 

By the time of Solon the olive had so spread that he 
found it necessary to enact laws to regulate the culti- 
vation of the tree in Attica, from which country it was 
probably distributed gradually to all the Athenian allies 
and tributary states. 

To the Ionian Coast, where it abounded in the time 
of Phales, it may have been in an earlier age brought 
by Athenians. 

Samos, if we may judge from the Greek epithet 
Aeschylus uses, eleuophetog, must have had the fruitful 
plant long before the Persian Wars. It is not unlikely 
that the valuable tree was taken to Magna Graecia by 
the first Achaean Colonists. 

In Pliny's time it was already grown abundantly 
in the two Gallis provinces and in Spain. Indeed, in the 
earlier days of Strabo, the Pigurians supplied the bar- 
barians with oil. 

The Romans knew the olives later than the Greeks. 
Pliny in speaking of the cultivated olive says, "The 
olive was known first in Rome at the time of Tarquin 
the Ancient, 627 B. C." The species then existed in 
Great Greece as well as Greece and Sicily. 

Africa was indebted for the olive mainly to Semitic 
agencies. Along the southern shore of the great inland 
sea, the tree was carried by the Phoenicians and at a 
remote period to their numerous colonies in Africa. 

The tree was supposed to have been taken into Sar- 
dinia and the Balaeric Islands by these same merchants. 
And if it is true that old olive trees are found in the 
Canaries, on their rediscovery by mediaeval navigators, 
the venerable trees probably owed their origin to the 
same enterprising pioneers of the Ancient World. 

The writer De Candole says that "the means by 
which the olive was distributed to the two opposite 

Page five 



shores of the Mediterranean are indicated by the name 
given the plant by their respective inhabitants, the Greek 
name passing into the Latin olea and oliva. That in 
turn becoming ulivo of the modern Italian, the olive 
of the Spanish, and the olive, Oliver, of the French." 




Page six 



HISTORY OF THE OLIVE. 

The history of the olive and its production begins in 
the days before written manuscripts. On prehistoric 
monuments sculpturings are found which show oil 'being 
used for anointing as well as other ceremonial services. 

The precious oil used in Biblical days was always 
olive oil, perfumed, purified and sanctified. The widow's 
cruse which during the terrible famine remained inex- 
haustible was that in which she kept olive oil. 

For ages so precious and valuable was the olive that 
in all remaining records of the people of the holy and 
ancient times is found mention of the most service- 
able and delectable fruits, olives, dates, figs, and grapes. 
Unquestionably these were the most valuable products 
of those days. In Biblican history the mention of the 
olive frequently occurs. Noah, after the waters of the 
ii( kkI abated, sent out from the Ark a dove "and the 
dove come unto him in the evening,, and lo, in her 
mouth was an olive leaf pluckt off." — Gen. viii, 2. Again 
we read in Judges i.\, 8-9: "The trees went forth on 
a time to anoint a king over them, and they said unto 
the olive tree, Reign thou over us. But the olive tree 
said unto them, Should I leave my fatness (French ver- 
sion reads 'my sweetness and my oil') wherewith, by 
me they honour God and man, and go to be promoted 
over the trees?" 

The mythological interpretation of the growth of the 
olive tree readily invites attention. 

The Athenians held it in such esteem that they 
ascribed its production to their tutelary Deity. This 
beneficent miracle, which is retraced in the monuments 
of Athens, is differently represented by ancient mytho- 
logical authors. It is thus related by Apollodorus 
Athiensis : "In the reign of Cecrops leave was given 
to the gods to assume the patronage of cities in which 
they might appropriate to themselves peculiar honors. 
Upon which Neptune came into Attica, standing in the 
middle of the Citadel, he smote the earth with his tri- 
dent, causing the sea to flow at his feet. 



Page seven 



"After him appeared Minerva, who, calling Cecrcps 
to be a witness of what she was about to perform, 
caused an olive tree to spring from the ground. 

''Now it happened that this olive tree which grew in 
the shrine of Erectus was burned with the rest of the 
temple by the barbarians. On the second day after the 
burning the Athenians, who by the King were ordered 
to sacrifice, went up to the temple. To their amaze- 
ment they found a shoot from the stump sprung up 
to the height of a cubit." 

Another legend reads in this manner : "Among tne 
most celebrated cities of Greece the one that stands out 
supreme in its glory is Athens, said to have been founded 
by Cecrops. It is here that the olive is thought to have 
first appeared." The story tells us that Neptune and 
Minerva aided in the foundation of Cecrop's city and 
that they quarreled as to which one should name the 
citv. as the honor was to depend upon the value of the 
gift these two Gods bestowed upon the land. 

Neptune gave a swift horse, but Minerva's gift of 
the olive tree quite eclipsed his in value, so the citj 
was named after the giver of this precious tree. Athens 
Cecrops put the question to vote, the men pronouncing 
in favor of Neptune, but the women for Minerva, she 
winning by one vote. Neptune's son, Hallirhotius, wish- 
ing to avenge his father, attempted to destroy the olive 
tree. He was wounded in the impious attempt and 
died. Thus Minerva became patron Deity of the City 
of Athens. 

From her father Jupiter, one of whose names was 
Mopios, the olive was called mopiai. 

The olive tree that Minerva caused first to appear 
grew on the rocks near the city that had been strucK 
by Neptune's trident ; it was surrounded by a wall and 
called the Acropolis, and was guarded by a band of 
warriors who alone were allowed to dwell there. 

Aristides said, "Attica is the center of Greece, Athens 
of Attica, the Acropolis of Athens." He well might 
have added, "the olive tree is the center of the Acro- 
polis." 



Page eight 



It is around this olive tree on the Acropolis and its 
surrounding temples that the history of the great re- 
public is centered. 

It became the place of safety in the moment of 
danger ; its citadel at the summit was strengthened by 
the groves of wild olive trees, which grew on the slopes 
of the rock. And about sixty years after the Pelas- 
gians further fortified it by replacing some of these 
with walls. 

Phidias, Praxiteles and others celebrated the birth of 
Minerva's tree, and Horace wrote, "The one thing which 
is necessary is to keep safe the Citadel of Pallas, and 
everywhere to put the select olive in a conspicuous 
place." 

Also it was considered an act of the highest piety 
and honor to Minerva to consecrate to her statues made 
of the wo.od of the olive tree. 

There is a very quaint legend connected with the 
Church Nossa Senhora Da Oliveira- (Our Lady of tiie 
Olive Tree) at Gui M aniens (Portugal, near Oporto) : 
"In the time of the Goths. Wamba was busy on his 
farm ploughing when some messengers arrived from 
the nobles and announced his accession to the throne. 

"Surprised, Wamba replied that he would be king 
when his goad blossomed with leaves, at the same time 
thrusting it into the ground. By divine intervention it 
took root, branches sprouted, bearing leaves and fruits 
of the olive." 

In the year B. C. 484 the Historian Herodotus writes 
as follows : "The land of the Epidaurians yielding no 
fruit, the Epidaurians sent to consult the oracle at 
Delphi concerning the calamity. The Pythian bade 
them erect statues of Dauria and Auresia, and when 
they had fulfilled the command it would fare better 
with them. They asked whether the statues should be 
made of wood or stone, but the oracle decreed they 
should be made of the wood of the cultivated olive. ' 

The Epidaurians thereupon requested the Athenians 
to permit them to cut down an olive tree, thinking this 
tree to be the most sacred. It is said at that time that 
there were no olive trees in any other place in the world. 



Page nine 



The only condition under which the Athenians per- 
mitted them to use the tree was that annually they 
should bring victims to Minerva, Polias, and Erectheus. 

The Epidaurians having agreed to these terms, their 
request was granted. Having made and erected the 
statues, their land became fruitful and each year they 
fulfilled their promise of sacrifices. It is noted that in 
the lands of the famous nations of ancient history the 
olive appears as the most conspicuous product, bringing 
the conviction that the growers of the olives or the 
people raised on olive-growing soil were destined to be 
great, wise, and wealthy. Thus the Persians, Syrians, 
Romans. Grecians, Egyptians, Israelites, Philistines, 
Arabians, Babylonians and many other races who left 
names of great deeds were children of the olive land, 
nourished on the fruit of the tree so famous in ancient 
history. 

At all times the poets and historians of ancient 
nations praised olives and described them. There was 
then a sweet olive which royalty served without prepa- 
ration to eat as one would enjoy dates and figs. 

In modern history, when the original growers of tlK, 
olive had worn themselves out by wars, during which 
those who met death were invariably the best men, 
resulting in the degradation of the race stock, we hiid 
that Spain in the hey-day of her power, and France 
during the Napoleonic war were people of the olive. 

The veneration of the olive by the Greeks was very 
great. Florentinus, who lived about 218 A. D., wrote in 
his commentaries on agriculture, ''the olive being pure 
ought to have them that gather it chaste, for it will 
thus produce a great abundance of fruit. Also it is 
said that in Azarbe of Celicia, chaste boys cultivate 
the olive, and for this reason there the olive is very 
fruitful." 

This Grecian industry languished beneath a des- 
potism which the most ingenious calculations fail ro 
elude. In ancient Athens a premium was given for the 
multiplication of the olive, and severe penalties were 
inflicted upon the proprietors who destroyed it on their 
own estates. 



Page ten 



Now, to avoid the exactions to which he is a prey, 
the unhappy Athenian prefers cutting down his olives 
and selling them at a price unequal to their annual 
produce. 

The majesty of the Roman sway has conferred high 
honor upon the olive. With it they crowned the troops 
of the Equestrian Order ( who are wont to defile upon 
the ides of July). It is used by the victor in the minor 
triumphs of the Ovation ; also in Athens they are in 
the habit of crowning the conqueror with olive, and 
at Olympia the Greeks employ the wild olive foL a 
similar purpose. 

In Africa and Southern Spain the olive retains ap 
pellatives derived from the Semitic salt or sett; but the 
complete subjugation of Barbary by the Saracens suf- 
ficiently accounts for the prevalence of Semitic forms 
in that region; and aceytuno (Aral) Zeitum). the Anda- 
lnsian name given to the tree itself, is a vistage of the 
Moorish conquest. 

After the conquest of Africa by the Arabs, the 
thriving orchards of olive trees, covering two million 
five hundred thousand acres, that were located all 
through Southern Tunis, disappeared, so that at the 
beginning of the last century olive culture in that region 
had practically died out. Although today Southern 
Tunis is an arid, treeless waste, almost desert, in South- 
eastern Tunis the dry land orchards are the wonder and 
admiration of olive growers the world over. 

A remarkable fact, and one which has not been noted 
or at all spoken of by philologists, is that the Berber 
name for the olive, both tree and fruit, has the root 
tas or fas, similar to that of the ancient Egyptians. The 
Kabyles of the district of Algiers, according to the 
French-Berber dictionary, which is published by the 
French government, calls the wild olive tazebboujt, 
tessttha, on tamashinet. These are strong indications 
of the antiquity of the olive in Africa. 

The Arabs having conquered this country and the 
Berbers having been driven back into the mountains 
and the desert, also having subjected Spain, excepting 
the Basque country, the names derived from Semitic 



Page eleven 



J 



ze-it have prevailed even in Spanish. The Algerian 
Arabs call the cultivated olive ziltoun; the wild zen- 
boudji; the oil sit; while the Andalusians call the wild 
olive azebuche, the cultivated aceytuno. 

In other provinces we find the name of Latin origin, 
olivio, side by side with the Arabic words. The oil is 
in Spanish aceyte, which is almost the Hebrew name, 
but the holy oils are called oleos santos because they 
belong to Rome. The Basque use the Latin name for 
the olive tree. 

It is an established botanical fact that no leaf of the 
olive has hitherto been found in the tufa of the south of 
France, and Tuscany or Sicily, where the laurel, the 
myrtle and other shrubs now existing have been dis- 
covered. This is an indication, until the contrary is 
proved, of a subsequent naturalization. 

In modern tunes the olive has been spread widely 
over the world ; and though the Mediterranean lands 
that were its ancient home still yield the chief supply 
of the oil, the tree now is successfully cultivated m 
many regions unknown to its early distributors. Soon- 
after the discovery of the American continent it was 
conveyed thither by the Spanish settlers. In the 
United States one of the homes of the olive is in 
Southern California, where it is extensively cultivated. 

Authorities differ as to the size of the olive tree. 
The bulk of the patriarchal ones is said to be very 
great. It is an authenticated fact that in France olive 
trees have reached such size that two men can hardly 
compass them with their arms. 



Page twelve 



THE OLIVE AND ITS GROWTH 

In ancient history there are but few varieties of the 
olive mentioned. Virgil speaks of but three, the 
"Orchites," probably the "Olea Maximo Fractu" of 
Tournefort. It has its name from the Greek orxis, 
the testis, a name by which it is still known in some 
parts of Provence. "The Radius or Shuttle Olive*' 
and the "Poisa," probably the "Clea Media Rotunda 
Prascox" of Tournefort. 

In Campania, Horace and Martial speak in praise 
of the Venafran Olive. Hardouin suggests that Lici- 
nius Cassus may have introduced the Licinian Olive. 
Ancient Italian authors enumerated comparatively few, 
form twelve to sixteen varieties, but a modern writer 
in that country has summed up the variety to over three 
hundred. The species of interest to us is the "Olea 
Europea," as this is the only variety that has yet repaid 
man's care by the increase in weight of its berry. The 
olive (Olea Europea of Linneus) was so called by 
Linneus to indicate that its home was there ; that there 
it is cultivated by choice and has been held in honor 
from the remotest antiquity. 

Mr. Caruso, Professor of Agriculture at the National 
University of Pisa, separates the olives under three 
heads as : "The domesticated olive, the wild olive, the 
seedling of the cultivated olive, although two only, that 
of the domesticated olive and wild olive, would answer 
all practical purposes." 

The olive will live in almost any soil except a dry 
and compact or a humid one, while we safely assume 
that the olive prefers a soft, friable, moderately cool 
soil, one rich in lime and potash, a permeable soil, 
such as a limey clay of medium consistency, not inclined 
to either dryness or humidity. The roots then encounter 
no obstacle in extending themselves and the air and 
moisture would circulate sufficiently. Lime abounding 
phosphate, magnesia, with an abundance of silicates 
of alum and mercury and a sufficiency of potash and 
soda are the chemical and physical requisites which 



Page thirteen 



this tree will find most advantageous to its develop- 
ment, that will cause it to produce abundantly, and, 
other circumstances being equal, to give the very best oil. 

Hence it may be seen that the olive will flourish 
wherever its roots will penetrate easily and there is no 
deficiency of alkali, such as a loose soil of rocky clay 
or sand of volcanic or granite formation. 

But .while the olive will subsist on many different 
soils or prosper in several, it is not to be concluded 
that it may be condemned to bare impoverished ground. 

It must be remembered that the latitude must largely 
guide one in selecting the kind of soil for an olive 
orchard. In Southern Spain the mean summer tem- 
perature is as high as eighty-two degrees. There they 
hold red soil in very low estimation, preferring the 
light colored or white, considering the red soil attracts 
too much heat and requires too much irrigation. In 
Central Spain the light red soil with a porous tendency 
to carry off the frequent rains is preferred, while the 
white is entirely condemned. Still further north the 
dark porous soils are exclusively used. 

The calcareous soils through their action on the 
natural and artificial fertilizers quickly put into circu- 
lation the elements of nutrition of the olive and so 
promote its growth ; but for this very reason it is 
necessary that the tree should be frequently manured 
in order to obtain an annual product. It is the want 
of nourishment in the ground that causes the olive to 
fruit only every other year or every third year. Exces- 
sive moisture is deleterious, also in a dry hard soil the 
tree contracts, splits and leaves the roots gorged with 
sap. The most favorable soil is an open, loose and fairly 
fertile one, and ought to be at least a yard in depth. 

The olive is fond of a chalky soil ; that is, one made 
up of lime carbonates. The carbonate of lime is in- 
dispensable to vegetable life and it is noticed that the 
oil from olives grown on a calcareous soil is better 
than from a soil lacking in this element. 

The fact is established that the best soil for the 
olive is that in which lime predominates ; and where 
silica exists, and there is no lack of clay. It will readily 



Page fourteen 



be seen that such a soil would give passage to mois- 
ture, while at the same time there would be consistency 
enough to sustain the tree and preserve the elements 
of nutrition. Liebig says that "at the time of flowering 
of any vegetable if the soil abounds in phosphates the 
fruit sets well and is started on the road with every 
advantage ; on the contrary, if these are lacking the 
Rowers fall off and the tree gives its strength to the 
wood.'' 

The quality of the fruit is essentially affected by 
that of the soil ; it succeeds in good loams which are 
capable of bearing corn, but on fat lands it yields oil 
of an inferior flavor and becomes laden with a barren 
exuberance of branches and leaves. 

All varieties of lives dread the extremes of heat and 
cold ; thus the temperature of the climate is quite if not 
of more consideration than the soil. 

Neither do they delight in very low nor in very 
elevated situations, but rather in gentle declivities, 
with an exposure adapted to the climate where the fresh 
breezes, playing among the branches, may contribute to 
the health of the trees and to the fineness of the fruit. 
The ancients contend that L he olive would not grow 
unless it had sea air, and established the rule that it 
should not be planted more than ninety miles inland. 

Theoprastus, the famous Greek writer (previously 
quoted ) , has asserted that "the olive does not grow 
at a distance of more than forty miles from the sea." 
Also that ''the reason why the olive flourished to such 
an extent in Attica was because it craves thin soil 
with its outcroppings of calcareous rock, which, while 
it suits the olive perfectly, is fit for little else agri- 
cultural."' 

The Arabic and Latin ■ authors hold to the same 
facts, but it has been established that the olive can 
be grown at any distance inland provided the soil and 
climate are favorable to it. 

In high altitudes it requires that it be placed on hill- 
sides exposed to the south ; that it may be warmed by 
the reflected heat. For successful cultivation the yearly 
mean temperature should be not less than fifty-seven 



Page fifteen 



degrees Fahrenheit. Pliny says "the olive of the low 
ground is more liable to disease than that grown on 
high ground/' 

In general it may be said that the olive requires 
the same kind of soil as the grape, in proof of which 
we often see them growing together. The olive is not 
so hardy as the grape vine, the latter requiring only 
10.800 degrees Fahrenheit to ripen its fruits, whereas 
the olive needs 12,700 degrees, although some varieties 
will ripen with 10,800 degrees from blossoming time 
to maturity. 

The beauty of the olive is far from corresponding to 
its intrinsic value. It varies in size according to the 
climate in which it grows. The olive yards of France 
contain trees generally from eighteen to twenty feet in 
height and from six inches to two feet in diameter, 
the temperature being scarcely warm enough for the 
greater development of the trees. 

In Spain Pliny writes of it as one of the largest 
trees. On Mount Atlas, Desfontaines saw wild olives 
from forty-five to sixty feet in height. Beaujour com- 
pares the olive of the plains of Marathon to the finest 
walnut, .for stature. 

The main limbs of the olive are numerously divided 
the branches are opposite, and the pairs are alternately 
placed upon conjugate axes of the limb. The foliage 
is evergreen, but a part of it turns yellow and falls in 
the summer and in three years is completely renewed. 
In the spring or early autumn, the seasons when vege- 
tation is in its greatest activity, the young leaves come 
out immediately about the circatrice of the former 
petioles, and are distinguished by their suppleness and 
by the freshness of their tint. 

The color of the leaves varies in different varieties 
of the olive, but they are generally smooth and of a 
light green above, whitish and somewhat downy with 
a prominent rib beneath. On most of the cultivated 
varieties they are from fifteen to twenty-four lines long, 
from six to twelve lines broad, lanceolate entire nearby 
sensile, opposite and alternate in the branches. 



Page sixteen 



The olive is slow in blooming, as well as in every 
function of vegetable life. The buds begin to appear 
about the middle of April, and the bloom is not full 
before the end of May or the beginning of June. 

The Mowers are small, white, slightly odoriferous, 
and disposed in auxiliary racemed or clusters. A pe- 
duncle about as long as the leaf issues from its base, 
upon which the flowers are supported by secondaiy 
pedicles like those of the common currant. Sometimes 
the clusters are almost as numerous as the leaves and 
garnish the tree with wanton luxuriance ; at others 
they are thinly scattered over the branches, or seen only 
at their extremity. It is essential to remark that they 
are borne by the shoots of the preceding year. Each 
flower is complete in itself, consisting of a calyx, a 
monopetalous corolla divided into four lobes, and of the 
organs of reproduction, namely two stamina and one 
pistil. 

A week after the expanding of the flower the corolla 
fades and falls. If the calyx remains a favorable pres- 
age is formed of the f ruitf ulness of the season ; unfor- 
tunately the hopes of the husbandman are liable to be 
blasted at this period by the slightest atmospherical 
disturbance, which is apt to cause the germ to fall 
with the flower. Warm weather accompanied by gentle 
breezes will facilitate the f ruitf ulness and aid materially 
in the development of the fruit. 

The fruit of the olive is called by botanists a drupe ; 
it is composed of pulpy matter enveloping a stone, ox 
ligneous shell, containing a kernel. 

The olive is ovate, pointed at the extremity, from 
six to ten lines in diameter in one direction and from 
ten to fifteen lines in the other; on the wild trees its 
size hardly exceeds that of the red currant. 

The skin is smooth, and when ripe of a violet color; 
in certain varieties it is yellowish or red. The pulp is 
greenish, the stone oblong, pointed, and divided into 
two cells, one of which is void. 

An olive usually takes on four colors, although all 
varieties do not follow the same rule. Green is followed 



Page seventeen 



by yellow, then a reddish purple, which is succeeded by 
wine red and lastly by a black red or glossy black. 

The young olive sets in June, increases in size and 
remains green through the summer, beginning to change 
color early in October, and is ripe at the end of Novem- 
ber or early in December. On the wild olive five or six 
drupes are ripened upon each peduncle ; but on the culti- 
vated tree a greater part of the flowers are imperfect, 
and as green fruit is cast at every stage of its growth, 
scarcely more than one or two germs upon a cluster 
arrive at maturity. 

With the cultivation of untold ages the olives have 
changed as all fruit changes. In the beginning, when 
it was a tiny berry, it saved the lives of savage tribes. 
These tribes learned to transplant them, learned to till 
the soil, and the ways of fertilizing it.. Soon they dis- 
covered the art of selection so that the fruit grew larger 
and larger, the pulp more nourishing, and more oil with 
a better taste and flavor was harvested. 

In this way thousands of years of unrecorded culti- 
vation passed, till the days when Cato declared that "the 
bitterest olive made the best oil." While Pliny discussed 
the medicinal qualities of black olives in the treatment 
of burns. Also Horace writes. "I prefer the savory 
olive to the best fruits in my garden." 

Hesiod, an ancient writer who looked upon the 
knowledge of agriculture as conducive in the very high- 
est degree to the comforts of life, declared that "there 
was no one who ever gathered fruit from the olive tree 
sown by his own hands," in those times so slow was it 
in reaching maturity. Now at the present day it is 
sown in nurseries even, and if transplanted will bear 
fruit the following year. 

In all the olive-growing countries the berry and the 
olive serve as the chief food, not only of the wealthv 
and titled inhabitants, but also of the poorer class of 
people. Among many nations it serves as milk and 
butter. Aside from a staple article of food, olives are 
used for pickling, drying and the production of oil. 
which is always in great demand. The bark and wood 
of the olive tree in many ways is remarkable enough 



Page eighteen 



to demand attention. On the trunks and branches of the 
young tree the bark is smooth and of an ashy hue, and 
when it is removed the cellular skin appears of a light 
green. On old trees the bark upon the trunk and prin- 
cipal limbs is brown, rough and deeply furrowed. 

During the spring and autumn when the sap is in 
motion the bark is easily detached from the body of the 
tree. 

The wood is heavy, compact, fine grained and bril- 
liant, while the almurnum is soft and white ; the perfect 
wood is hard, brittle and of a reddish tint, with the pith 
nearly effaced. It is employed by cabinetmakers to inlay 
the finer species of wood which are contrasted with it 
in color ; also it is used in ornamenting articles, for 
instance dressing cases, jewel caskets, tobacco boxes, 
etc. The wood of the root, which is more agreeably 
marked, is preferred. 

The olive wood was classed by ancients among the 
hard and durable species; it was compared to ebony, 
cedar, box, and the lotus. On account of its hardness 
it -was used for the hinges of doors, and before metal 
became known to art, it was selected by the Greeks 
for the material used in the construction of the images 
of their gods. 

In the Citadel of Athens three statues of Minerva 
were preserved which exemplified not only the value 
of this wood, but the progress of Grecian art. 

The first, made of olive wood and of rude work- 
manship, was said to have fallen from heaven; the 
second, of bronze, was consecrated after the victory of 
Marathon; the third, of gold and ivory, was one of the 
miracles of the age of Pericles. 

From its resinous and oleaginous nature the oii\e 
wood is extremelv combustible, burning as well before 
as after it is dried. The value of the fruit renders this 
propertv unimportant, but it is interesting to know that 
after the severe winter of 1790, which proved fatal to 
the olives throughout the Provinces of LanguedoXancl {< 
Provence, the country was warmed some time with the 
precious wood. 



Page nineteen 



We are told as a fact that when the trunk of the 
tree had perished by fire or frost, it sprouts anew, 
also that a bit of the bark, with a thin layer of wood, 
if buried in the earth, becomes a perfect plant. 




Page twenty 



THE OLIVE IN THE NEW WORLD 

As is generally understood, the olive is essentially 
the product of civilization and cultivation; the wild 
olive bears little fruit, that little is of scarcely any 
value ; hence as civilization declined the tree becomes 
neglected, and in consequence reverts to its former state, 
and naturally soon becomes worthless, as in Palestine 
and to some extent in Greece and Egypt. Civilization 
dies; so does the olive if not recuperated by new life 
in new lands. 

"Civilization's march is westward and has been since 
the days of Babel and Babylon ; so is that of the olive. 
The civilized man and the civilized olive have both 
left their primeval home and migrated from Palestine 
to Egypt, and Greece, thence to Rome and Western 
Europe, thence finally across the water to America — 
always the best olives with the best men." 

"The once mightiest of the earth, where are they? 
With their olives — dead. Then, with the conquerors 
went the olive west, to Greece and Rome. Where are 
these ? With their olives — dead, dying or deteriorating 
— while with the new civilization new olives spring up."' 

Hence it is fitting that we turn from the old world's 
history and civilization of the olive to its life and pro- 
duction in the new world. 

The true North American olive belt, that region 
peculiarly adapted to the growth and extensive pro- 
duction of this wonderful fruit, includes a portion of 
Mexico proper, all of Lower California, much of the 
State of California, exclusive of the mountain heights. 

There is another section of the United States which, 
although it is not especially adapted to the culture of 
the olive, still the fruit with a fair measure of success 
can be grown there. This region includes parts of 
Arizona, Texas, Georgia, South Carolina, also limited 
portions of Southwestern Utah and Nevada. 

Probably nowhere in the world, neither in Asia or 
Europe, is the olive more in its natural element than 
in Southern California, so often called the Italy of 
America. 



Page twenty-one 



As to the life-giving and ever-fruitful soil of Cali- 
fornia, that land which had never known a spade until 
three hundred years after that of Italy, had become in 
a measure irresponsive to cultivation without an abun- 
dance of artificial stimulant. 

When one claims for Southern California superiority 
as the true and natural home of the far-famed olive, 
it is no fiction of the imagination or idle boast, but 
a stern fact amply capable of demonstration. 

San Diego, in Southern California, is the spot where 
all the requirements of soil and climate are found, 
which formerly were available only in foreign environ- 
ment. It was in this beautiful spot in 17% that the 
Franciscan Missionaries first planted the tree of Pales- 
tine in Alta, California, the reason for which is obvious. 
In the interest of their church they expected the newly- 
planted groves would yield fruit from which their holy 
oil could be obtained in abundance. The grove is still 
standing, where it will remain and flourish, bringing 
forth fruit for centuries to come, while time passes 
lightly over its swaying silent trees. 

San Fernando also shares the honor of some of the 
earliest olive orchards, while some of the oldest trees 
are found in Capistrano. From an Agricultural Year 
Book we learn that about the year 1800 at Fernando 
hxe hundred trees were planted ; now about four hun- 
dred and fifty of them are in a fairly flourishing condi- 
tion. It is probable that none of the California trees 
have reached a diameter of more than two feet, a fact 
which emphasizes the great age of the monster olive 
trees of the Mediterranean region. 

It may be interesting to note a new method of 
propagating the olive which latterly has been consider 
ably developed in California : that of rooting small 
cuttings in sand in a hothouse. This system, the year 
book of agriculture tells us. was first tried at the Berke- 
ley Experiment Station. The time to plant the little 
cuttings in the hothouse is during the late autumn and 
winter. From three to eight months are required to root 
them, according to the prevailing conditions of tem- 
perature and moisture, and the variety which is being 



Page twenty-two 



rooted. A little bottom heat is required while rooting 
most varieties, but some of the more easily rooted ones 
may be started under glass wtihout heat or even in a 
cool frame or lath house. Well mature twigs of about 
the diameter of a match and about three inches long are 
• selected for this purpose. These are stuck in the sand 
about half their length and all leaves removed except 
the upper two. 

Extreme care is necessary in the care and manage- 
ment of these cuttings. They may be planted in nur- 
sery rows during the spring, summer or autumn. Weli- 
rooted and vigorous trees result from this method, some 
of which have yielded fruit four years from the time 
the little twigs were rbmed i n the sand. 

It is an established fact that millions of olive twigs 
are now rooted annually by this process and it has so 
largely superseded all other methods that probably three- 
fourths of the olive trees in the United States are now 
rooted by this system. 

The advantageous use of dry hillsides for olive 
groves is rapidly growing in interest to a large number 
of California growers. It would be of large moneyed 
importance if ranges of these hills extending from 
north to south could be used, as at present they are 
barren of any kind of crops. Foreign conditions seem 
to point that the scheme would be advisable, at least 
that it would pay to give it a fair trial, as through 
Southern Europe the fact is generally conceded that 
the quality of oil produced from hillside groves is tar 
superior to that produced from groves in valleys. Also 
a writer of oil culture states the fact that many vari- 
eties of olives bear larger fruits when planted in our 
virgin soil than thev do when grown in the Old World 
\ few varieties of olives are known that bear sweet 
fruits which, when ripe, may be eaten from the tree 
and when dried are very good, Piru Sweet One and 
Piru Sweet Two. In these two imported varieties of 
unknown origin Olifor-n h?s ?cquired two very val- 
uable additions to the olive varieties now on the | coast. 

In the New World growers of olives, unlike tn- 
ancients, have usually but two things in view, oil and 



pickles, the former requiring the olive to be picked 
when ripe, which in California for the most varieties 
will be in January and December, the latter being 
gathered while green. 

A good deal of uncertainty is apparent in regard to 
the California varieties which are the best for oil. Those 
which are generally conceded to be the best are Mo- 
rinello, Infrantofo (Grossafo), Leccino, Rozza, Ob- 
longa, Uvaria of Mr. Loop, Rubra, Morafolo, Correg- 
giolo, Frantojo, Piru No. 1, Nevadillo, Blanco and 
Mission. 

In the previous pages the manner of obtaining the 
oil from and the pressing of the olives has been dis- 
cussed at some length, but it may be well to give a few 
moments' consideration to the clarification of the oil. 

This process varies. "The clearest and most bril- 
liant oil, however, is generally obtained by passing it 
through some compact filter, such as is used for filtering 
spirituous liquids or the gray filter paper usually sold 
in circular sheets by druggists. More porous filters will 
evolve a less brilliant oil. It is even probable that oil 
bottled without filtration, if thoroughly cleared by 
standing at a proper temperature for a sufficient length 
of time, will be of a finer flavor than that passed through 
filters of any description." 

Probably the olive has reached its greatest perfec- 
tion at the Helix Farms, ten miles southeasterly from 
the city of San Diego. Here the setting out of the olive 
was begun in 1 885 . The soil was found peculiarly 
adapted, and the venture met with great success. 

Wherever olives grow they will be eaten. Thus at 
the present time California probably consumes more 
olives than all the rest of the United States. As yet 
the domestic production of olive oil has not been 
sufficient to meet the demand of this country, so a 
large portion of the consumption is supplied by the 
imported article. The number of importers of olive 
oil are each year increasing, hence the great need and 
the unlimited possibilities that attend the culture and 
cultivation of the olive in the United States can readily 
be seen. 



Page twenty-four 



THE OIL OF THE OLIVE 

The term oil, oleum, from olea (because the oil of 
olives was first distinguished by this name) is of veiy 
ancient origin. 

Oil is a product of great utility, the symbolic sig- 
nification of which harmonizes with its natural uses: 
Jt serves to strengthen, sweeten, and to render supple 
Olive oil figured very prominently in the Mosaic law 
and ordinances, hence in Exodus it is written, "And 
thou shalt command the children of Israel, that they 
bring the pure olive oil beaten for the light, to cause 
the lamp to burn always" ; then again, "Thou shalt 
anoint Aaron and his sons and consecrate them." In 
the, Psalms of David it is spoken of "as oil to make 
his face shine." In the New Testament it is mentioned 
several times, as in Hebrews, "Therefore God, even 
thy God, hath anointed thee with the oil of gladness 
above thy fellows." 

In the History of Chemistry, by Dr. Fred Hoefer 
(1842), he says: "The idea of crushing fruits to obtain 
from them either fecula (a starch) or juice, gave rise 
to the discovery of oil.'' It is rational to admit that 
oil, fecula and unfermented wine were discovered at 
the same time: for the man who first thought of crush- 
ing the fruit of the wine had no reason not to proceed 
with his experiment. He should try to treat in the same 
way all the dry fruits or fleshy parts of the plants 
which he had at hand. 

As has been previously noted, the olive tree was of all 
trees the most valued, at the same time most useful. 
For this reason the ancient races dedicated to it a sort 
of worship. The oil which the olive tree furnishes, wiih 
the aid of a simple mechanical operation, had a much 
more widespread use in ancient times than it enjoys 
today. 

Omphacium oil, oil of unripe olives, was the most 
valued. It was extracted from olives before they were 
perfectly ripe. Also by some writers it is known as 
"Virgin Oil." Now a question of great importance to 



Page twenty-five 



J 



be considered is the term "sweet,'' as applies to olive 
oil ; as olive oil, according to the technical term, is 
not sweet. It was found the oil made from the pure 
fruit pulp as in the Hebrew treading process was bettc 
than the oil made when the pulp seeds were crushed, 
as under the great stones ; the oil from the pure pulp 
being sweet, while that from the seed was bitter. 

It was the practice of the Greeks and Romans to 
distil oil from the olive at various stages of maturity. 
The oil produced by the early berries being bitter, while 
that which was made toward Christmas was fragrant 
and mellow, the latter being called "sweet oil" in order 
to distinguish it from the earlier product, which was 
called ''summer,'' or ''bitter oil." 

Doubtless it would be the former which would be 
generally used for culinary or medical purposes, hence 
the term "sweet oil" would be generally applied to all 
ordinary olive oil. Then, too. when there was practically 
only the one sort of oil and that oil meant almost as a 
matter of course the juice pressed from the olive, there 
was no need of any distinguishing prefix. 

Later on when an empirical and barbaric system 
of medicine began to employ all sorts of oils made from 
dead animals (decomposed fish may be cited as an 
instance), very naturally the qualifying epithet of 
"sweet" attached itself to the oil of the olive. 

Some idea of the gruesome substances used in the 
apothecary shops of that age, the sixteenth century, can 
be found in the witches' opening chorus, in act four, 
of "Macbeth." 

From the various processes of manufacturing the 
oil, because of the great value of olive oil, also the 
wonderful demand for it, soon adulterants came into 
use. Oil was squeezed or extracted from nuts, plants, 
and various other sources. This oil was used to in- 
crease the Quantity of oil sold under the name of olive 
oil. The adulterated and false oils were bitter to the 
ta c te; soon the trade began to demand "sweet olive 
nil" and "sweet oil" in preference to the adulterated 
varieties. 



Page twenty- six 



It must be carefully noted that the word "sweet" 
was used in relation to olive oil because olive oil was 
smooth, not in the same sense that applies to sugar. 
Olive oil is not sweet as sugar is sweet, but it is pleas 
ant and agreeable to the taste, as spring water is said 
to be "sweet" while the waters of the sea are called 
''bitter waters." 

In this connection it is worth explaining that long 
before the Christian era olive oil was perfumed witii 
flowers, various spices and balsams. The first per- 
fume was made by dipping flowers into the oil, result- 
ing in "precious ointment," of which such frequent 
mention is made in both the Old and Xew Testaments. 

Here also olive oil was associated with "sweet" in* 
the sense of fragrant and smooth. 

It was burned at the Jewish altar with the uniden- 
tified frankincense; the perfumed and resined oil burn- 
ing with a sweet odor. 

The next point which we must consider is the ques- 
tion as to who gave the name "sweet oil," in what age, 
and the reason for so naming this product. 

By the accident of language, it not infrequently hap- 
pens that certain phrases, though common enough in 
trade, or even on the lips of people, yet find but little 
expression in literature. No doubt had there been_ a 
popular press in the sixteenth century, we should dis- 
cover the word there; but as there was none, and as 
furthermore most of the popular literature of thai 
time has perished beyond chance of recall, it becomes 
very difficult to find instances of a vernacular phrase. 

Not once in "Piers the Plowman" (Chaucer), or in 
his contemporary, Grover ; not even in Shakespeare or 
Milton does the phrase occur. 

The following are practicady the only instances dis- 
covered : In 1531 Sir Thomas Elyot in the "Boke ! 
called the "Governour," speaks of "the sweet oyle of 
remembrance," but one can feel by no means sure that 
he referred to olive oil. In 1571 Richard Mulcaster, 
head-master of Merchant Taylor's School, speaks of the 
ancient athletes who were "oynted with sweet oyle so 



Page twenty-seven 



neatly and with such cunning as it might sooke into 
their bodies and search everie joynt." 

The next instance to be quoted is when we find W. 
Halifax, a scientist of the late Stuart period, who affirms 
in one of his manuscripts, "perhaps he distributed 
among them sweet oyle, to be used in or after bathing. ' 

Sweet oil, so-called, is described in the Pharmaccepia 
Bateana, published in 1720, the scientific name, "Oleum 
Sacchari Simplex," or "oil or sugar simple," is thus 
described : "This is no oil, but a syrup, and receives its 
denomination only from its form, body and consistency. 
It is made of sugar candy and spirits of wine, mixed 
and dissolved with heat, the spirit being burned away." 

William Salmon, author of this book, is very definite 
in his description, for he classes the "sweet oil" under 
distilled oils, but called it a syrup ; and under "Oyls " 
describes various olive preparations, including "Oil of 
Toads," which should be made of live toads boiled in 
olive oil to obtain a cure for cancer. Also he says, 
"Le mort makes an oil of sugar after this manner, 
certain proportions of sugar, sand, or washed ashes 
being given ; mix them, put them into a glass retort. 
distil with a gentel fire in sand, at least increasing the 
fire to a red-hot heat so you have oil and spirit which 
you may separate." 

In Materia Medica (1810), the term olive oil and 
sweet oil is used synonomously : "The olive tree .... 
is cultivated to a very considerable extent, on account 
of its fruit, from which the sweet or salad oil is ex- 
tracted As an article of food, olive oil is pref- 
erable to animal fat, but it ought to be mild, fresh, and 
of sweet nature." 

Sweet fennel oil, anise oil, the oil of sesame, and 

various other oils, literallv sweet, and even mere sugar 
syrup, became "sweet oil." 

After a chemical 'analysis of these oils, the fact be- 
came apparent that while sweet fennel oil and anise 
oil are sweet to the taste, the oil of sesameis not sweet, 
but bears a pronounced likeness to olive oil. 



Page twenty-eight 



In the Chemical Technology of oils by Dr. J. Lenk- 
owitsch (1909), he says: "The taste of olive oil in its 
purest state is bland and pleasant. It varies, however, 
with the locality where the fruit has been grown. Thus 
the oils obtained from Tuscan fruits possess a decidedly 
more agreeable taste than those of Ligurian olives.' 

"Also as to the oil called 'Olive Kennel Oil,' the 
taste of the expressed oil is sweetish, somewhat re- 
sembling that of almond oil, without, however, pos- 
sessing the characteristic bland taste of olive oil." 

Still, in a Technology of less recent date (1895), 
W. T. Dent affirms: "The tree bears a stone fruit, the 
fleshy integument of which contains the sweetest of all 
vegetable oils." 

It is to be noted that the earliest Greek literature, 
the Homeric Poems, make no reference to olive oil as 
a food. Its sole purpose at that time was to give supple- 
ness to the limbs of the athlete. 

However, in Hesiod's writings, whose date, though 
uncertain, cannot be so much later than the Homeric 
era we find olive oil used alike for both purposes < 

The oil of the olive is furnished by the pulp, which 
is a characteristic almost peculiar to this fruit; in other 
oleaginous vegetables it is extracted from the seed 
The oil of the pulp is rich, of a delicious flavor, that of 
Ibe stone dark, cloudy: that of the seed contains essen- 
tia 1 and resinous oil in small quantities. These oils 
of stone seed and skin, instead of adding to the oil 
obtained from the pulp, would be a great injury if they 
did not exist in such small quantities. It can easily be 
«een that in selecting a variety for olive culture the 
varieties containing much pulp and small seeds should 
be chosen. Different varieties of olives ripen at dilter- 
ent periods and in order that the best oil should be 
made the berry, should be gathered at the time of it 
maturity and at no other. No time can oe set when 
an olive crop should be harvested. It may vary by 
weeks from one season to another, and it is better by 
far to anticipate than to defer the harvest. ^ 

Pascannus a Grecian writer, recommends the 
proper season for the preparation of the common oil 



Page twenty-mnc 



is when more than half of the fruit appears to be 
getting black. But it is necessary to accelerate the 
gathering before the frosts set in, for the trees will 
afford a less laborious and a more abundant crop. But 
it is necessary to gather the fruit when it is fine weather 

and not rainy It is proper to wash the olives 

with warm water, for besides the cleaning of them we 
shall likewise find more oil." 

Again from Apuleius the following method of har- 
vesting is given : "When you then see the olives be- 
ginning to exhibit signs of maturity, order the boys to 
gather them with their hands, observing that none of' 
them may fall on the ground. ... It is necessary that 
the wheel (of the mill) may be turned around briskly 
and lightly that the flesh and the skin of the olive may 
be only pressed; after the grinding, carry what is ground 
in small trays to the press and lay in frails made of 
willow, for the willow contributes much to the beauty 
of the oil ; then lay on a light weight, not a burdensome 
one, for what flows from light pressure is very sweet 
and very thin, which when you have drawn it into clean 
vessels, orders to be kept by itself ; press again with a 
heavier weight the olives that are left .... and keep 
this, too, by itself, for it will be a little inferior, and 
so on." 

"Then, too, it is not with olive oil as it is with wine, 
for by age it acquires a bad flavor and at the end of a 
year it is already old." 

Several writers of ancient days speak most highly of 
the Licinian olive, which is grown in the territory of 
Venaf rum ; it is said to produce the finest quality of oil, 
also it is an established fact that the birds will never 
destroy the berries of the Licinian olives. 

Fabianus tells us "the first olive to be gathered after 
the autumn is that known as the Posia, the berry of 
which has the most flesh upon it ; next to this is the 
Orchitis, which contains the greatest quantity of oil ; 
then after that the Radius." 

The varieties known as the Licinian, the Comenian, 
the Conlian, and the Sergian do not turn black before 
the west winds prevail, i. e., prior to the sixth day before 



Page thirty 



the Ides of February. At this period it is generally 
thought the most excellent oil is extracted from them. 

The size of the olive does not govern the yield of 
oil; often the largest olive contains the least oil* while 
an abundant harvest of oil is gathered from small ones. 
The Egyptian olive is very meaty but yields an inferior 
quality of oil, while the olives of Decapolis. and Syria 
are extremely small, yet yield in proportion more oil; 
again, the olives that are preferred for table use aie 
inferior for making oil. 

The ancient people used salt to prevent the oil turn- 
ing rancid, and often by making incisions in the baik of 
the tree imparted an aromatic odor to the oil. 

Here it may be stated that in the fine oil the odor 
is penetrating, but even in the very best it is short 
lived. 

In the writings of Pliny he enumerated forty-live 
varieties of artificial oils, speaking of them in this 
manner : "We will first mention those which are pro- 
duced from the trees, and among them more par- 
ticularlv the wild olive." This olive is small, much 
more bitter than the cultivated one, hence its oil is 
used only in medicinal preparations. The oil from 
Oleasters is thinner than ordinary oil and has a stronger 
odor. 

Old olive oil is thought to be of great use in tne 
preservation of ivory. So much credence was given 
<-o the idea that at one time the statue of Saturn in 
Rome was kept filled with it. 

Before we t"ra to the consideration of modern 
methods of obtaining the oil from olives, it is interest- 
ing to note Cato's rules regarding the Overseer's duties 
in the manufacture of the oil. He says: "The Ovei- 
seer must frequently drain ofT the oil and deliver each 
time what he gets to the oil pressers in pint vessels, 
as well as what is required for the lamp. The dregs 
must be daily removed and the watery lees must con- 
stants be taken out. till the bottom of the vat in the 
pressing chamber is reached. The baskets must oe 
wiped out with a sponge. Every day the oil must dp 
removed from the vat till it has all been placed in jars." 



Page thirty-one 



Previously it has been mentioned that the immediate 
extraction of oil from the olive, as soon as possible 
after the gathering, is conducive to the greatest yield 
of oil ; a fact which is acknowledged by all writers 
regarding olive culture as well as by those interested in 
the manufacture of oil. 

Conditions may arise that will render the immediate 
use of the olive impossible. In fact some statistics affirm 
that when the olive is partly dried the oil is much bettei. 

In the drying of the olive the Italians spread them 
on brick floors, being careful to have the bricks porous 
in quality. The olives are so placed as to allow the air 
free circulation. During the day they are carefully 
turned by wooden rakes, the greatest caution being exer- 
cised not to bruise them. The process is repeated three 
or four times each day. This is considered a simple 
and safe method of drying the fruit 

It is easily seen in the drying process that the water 
will evaporate to a considerable extent. Care must be 
taken that the fruit is not allowed to soften, as that 
will be the first symptom of decay, which will tend 
to impair the flavor and odor of the oil. 

Many different systems are employed in the prepara- 
tion of olive oil — each in a way peculiar to the climate 
in which it is used. 

In Sicily, where large quantities of olive oil are 
used and produced, the operation is performed in a 
primitive fashion. 

The olives are first placed on a circular flat form 
of masonry, about seven feet in diameter, upon which 
a heavy millstone is turned by a pole or a donkey. The 
mass, which has been thoroughly pulped by this process, 
is now placed in soft rush baskets and put under a 
press, which is compressed by means of a wooden screw 
worked by five or six men. By this means the cold oil 
is expressed, heat being used to extract the remainder. 
The oil is allowed to settle and clarify before it is ready 
for use. 

The objection found to this process is that the crush- 
ing of the kernels with the pulp renders the oil extracted 



Page thirty-two 



r 



bitter or of a peculiar taste, thus injuring the flavor 
and keeping quality of the oil obtained from the pulp. 

Modern crushers, therefore, do not break the stones. 
In California old-fashioned stone mills are used to 
crush the fruit, although bronze crushers are being tried 
with good results. The ground mass is then pressed 
to extract the liquid portion, which contains water plant 
juices in addition to the oil. 

Various devices are used to separate the oil and 
purify it. Since the separation of the oil from the 
juice by gravity is hazardous on account of liability to 
ferment, the impurities are quickly washed out by spe- 
cial apparatus in which a current of cool water comes 
in contact with a small quantity of the juice, mixes 
with it, separates the larger particles of pulp, allowing 
the oil to rise through a tall column of water, which 
further washes the oil globules as they arise. 

After being allowed to stand for a time in a cool 
room this oil is racked off and sold as "new oil," or may 
be again allowed to stand for further clarification. 

However, the American market demands a clear oil, 
hence much of the domestic oil is filtered through bone 
charcoal, a process which, especially if often repeated, 
impairs the flavor, making the oil seem greasy. 

Whatever the process of obtaining the oil may be, 
scrupulous cleanliness is necessary, as olive oil is pale 
yellow, inodorous, and has a specific gravity of .918 
at a temperature of fifteen (15) degrees Centigrade (C). 



Page thirty-three 



^. 



OLIVE OIL IN CHEMISTRY 
AND MEDICINE 

Olive oil also plays a prominent part in chemistry 
and medicine. In the history of "The Oleates," by 
John V. Showmaker, he says : "The use of fatty 
vehicles in applying medicinal substances to the cutan- 
eous covering of the body is probably as old as medicine 
itself. There is scarcely a doubt that innunctions per- 
formed a most important part in the early history of 
medicine. The fatty bodies then used were oils ex- 
pressed from the seeds and fruits of plants, as well 
as fats from domestic and wild animals." 

In a translation of "History of Chemistry From 
the Earliest Times to the Present Day'' by Ernest V. 
Meyer he gives us the following facts : "The use of 
artificially prepared products in medicines also extend to 
a period very far back, even though in referring to this 
one can only speak of the first beginning of a pharma- 
ceutical chemistry. But a connection between the chem- 
ical arts and pharmacy very early established itself. 
For example, the Egyptians, who were doubtless the 
first to employ actual chemical preparations for medi- 
cinal purposes." 

As, for instance, the preparation of lead plaister 
from litharge and oil was much practiced in the time 
of Deosconides. 

Other fatty compounds then known were fatty oils 
(from the seeds of fruits), olive, castor, and almond 
oils were largely used as medicinal remedies. 

In the earlier London and Edinburgh Pharmacoepias 
a strange and interesting fact regarding olive oil is 
given : A preparation called Oil of Bricks, among its 
synonyms were "oleum sanctum" and "oleum benedic- 
tum," was highly thought of and extensively used. 

By some of the earlv writers of the 1740's the nro- 
cess for making oil of bricks is given as follows :_ Flea 
the bricks red hot, then quench them in olive oil until 
they have soaked up all of the olive oil possible, then 
break very small pieces in a retort and by means of a 
sand bath with gradually increased heat a distillate of 



Page thirty- four 



oil and so-called spirit is obtained. It was deemed 
especially valuable as an application for gouty and 
rheumatic pains, and much thought of for deafness 

\lso in the 1740's balsam of sulphur was one of the 
uses into which olive oil entered. It was made by boiling 
the flowers of sulphur with four times their weight m 
.•live oil until the sulphur was dissolved and a thick 
dark balsamic substance was obtained. This in a medi- 
cinal point of view was valuable for coughs and asthma. 
At the present day olive oil is used as a laxative, 
as enemas, also as an antidote in cases of acid poison- 
ing as a local neutral protection from the atmosphere, 
as an inunction to increase the fat of the body or to 
reduce the heat of the skin. In lead factories workmen 
use it as a laxative to prevent the absorptions of lead. 
Combined with camphor, morphine, etc., it is applied, to 
wounds, burns and bruises. It also forms the basis 01 
many liniments. . , ,, 

It allavs the pain of insect bites, and warmed will 
aid in expelling foreign substances from the ear. Often 
it is applied to swollen parts of the body. It is used as 
a lubricant for surgical instruments, etc. 

Some physicians believe if given in large doses it will 
hasten the discharge of gallstones, apparently softening 

{ ^ It' may be well to add that in the Pharmacopoeias of 
\merica"the first volume of which was published in 
1820 that with the exception of the first volume olive 
oil is mentioned as follows in each subsequent edition . 
1830— Olive oleum: Olea Europea. 1840— Olive 
oleum: The fruit of the olea Europea. l»50-Olive 
oil • The oil of the fruit of olea Europea 860-Oleunr 
oil : The oil obtained from the fruit of olea Europea. 
1870-Oleum olive: The fixed oil obtained from the 
fruit Olea Europea. 1880-Oleum olive : The fixed ml 
expressed from the ripe fruit of olea Europe^ 1890- 
Oleum olive: A fixed oil expressed from the ripe fruit 
of olea Europea. It should be kept in well-stoppered 
bottles in a cool place. 1900-Oleum olive : Olive on . 
A fixed oil expressed from the ripe fruit of olea Euro- 
pea 1910-Oleum olive: A fixed oil obtained from 
the ripe fruit of olea Europea. 



THE ECCLESIASTICAL USE OF 
OLIVE OIL 

From the earliest ages to the present time the olive 
tree, its fruit with its uses, have been carefully con- 
sidered ; now brief mention should be made of olive oil 
as used in ecclesiastical ceremonies, both in primith e 
and modern times. As is generally known, the lith- 
urgical blessing of oil is very ancient. It is met will 
in the fourth century in the "Prayer Book of Serapion" 
and in the Apostolic Constitution, also in a Syrais docu- 
ment of the fifth and sixth centuries entitled "Tcsla- 
mentum Domini Nostri Jesn Christi.'' The aforesaid 
book of Bishop Serapion (A. D. 362) contains the 
formula for the blessing of the oil and chrism for those 
who had just received baptism, which was in those days 
followed by confirmation in such a manner that the 
administration of both sacraments constituted a single 
ceremony. In the same book is found a separate form 
of blessing for the oil, of the sick, for water, and for 
bread. It is an invocation to Christ to give His crea- 
tures power to cure the sick, to purify the soul, to drive 
away impure spirits, and to wipe out sin. In the Old 
Testament oil was used for the consecration of priests 
and kings, also in all great liturgical functions, e. g., 
sacrifices, legal purifications, and the consecration of 
altars. 

In the primitive church the oils to be used in th p 
initiation of catechumens were consecrated on Holy 
Thursday in the Missa Chrismalis. Two different am- 
pullae were used, one containing pure oil, the other 
mixed with balsam. This mixture was made by the 
Pope himself before the mass in the sacristy. During 
the mass two clerics of lesser rank stood before the 
altar holding the ampulla?. Toward the end of the 
canon the faithful offered for benediction small ampullae 
of oil: these contained oil of the sick which the faithful 
were allowed to make use of themselves, but the same 
oil also served for extreme unction. The vessels holding 
it were placed on the railing surrounding the space 
reserved for the clergy. The deacons brought sore 

Page thirty-six 



these vessels to the altar to receive the blessing of the 
Pope. The Pope continued the mass while the deacons 
returned the ampullae to the place whence they had 
brought them, and a certain number of bishops and 
priests repeated over those which had not been brought 
to the altar the formula pronounced by the Pope. The 
consecration of the large ampulla? took place imme- 
diately after the communion of the Pope, before the 
communion of the clergy and the faithful. The deacons 
covered the chalice and paten while the subdeacons 
carried the ampullae to the archdeacon and one of his 
assistants. The archdeacon presented to the Pope the 
ampullae of perfumed oil, the Pope breathed on it three 
times, made the sign of the cross, and recited a prayer 
which bears a certain resemblance to the preface of the 
mass. The ampullae of pure oil was next presented to 
the Pope and was consecrated with less solemnity. The 
consecration and benediction of the Holy oil now take 
place on Holy Thursday at a very solemn ceremony 
reserved for the bishop. He blesses the oil which is 
to serve at the anointing of catechumens previous to 
baptism, next the oil with which the sick are anointed 
in the Sacrament of Extreme Unction, finally the 
chrism, which is a mixture of oil and balsam, and which 
is used in the administration of the Sacrament of Con- 
firmation. 

The use of oil in Christian antiquity was not, as ha? 
been maintained, a medical prescription adopted by the 
church. In apostolic times St. James directed the priests 
or ancients of the community to pray for the sick man 
and to anoint him with oil in the name of Jesus. And 
shortly afterwards, probably in the second century, a 
gold leaf found at Beyrout in Svria, contains an ex- 
ordium "nronoimced in the dwelling of him whom I 
anointed." This is after the text of St. James ; the 
earliest evidence of the use of oil accompanied by a 
aula in the administration of a sacrament. The oil 
of the sick might lie blessed not onlv by priests but also 
bv layment of lush repute for virtue, and even by 
nen. In the sixth century St. Monegundus on iiis 
death-bed blessed oil and salt, which were afterwards 



Page thirty-seven 



used for the sick. A similar instance is met with in the 
life of St. Redegund. In the West, however, the ten- 
dency was early manifested to confine the blessing of 
the oil of the sick to bishops only. About 730 St. 
Boniface ordered all priests to have recourse to the 
bishop. In 744 the tendency was not so pronounced in 
France, but the Council of Chalons, 813, imposed on 
priests the obligation of anointing the sick with oil 
blessed by the bishop. In the East the priests retained 
the right to consecrate the oil. The custom even be- 
came established, and has lasted to the present time, of 
having the oil blessed in the house of the sick person, 
or in the church by a priest, or, if possible, by seven 
priests. 

During the time of the catechumenate those who 
were about to become Christians received one or mor- 
anointings with holy oil. The of 1 used on this occasion 
was that which had received tne blessing mentioned 
in the Apostolic Constitution. This anointing of the 
catechumens is explained by the fact that they weie 
regarded to a certain extent as being possessed by the 
devil until Christ should enter into them through bap- 
tism. The oil of catechumens is also used in the ordi- 
nation of priests and the coronation of kings and 
queens. 

The oil of chrism is used in the West immediately 
after baptism. Both in the East and West it was useu 
very early for the Sacrament of Confirmation. 

The "Ordo Roiiianus" shows that in Rome on Holy 
Thursday the archdeacon went very early to St. John 
Lateran, where he mixed wax and oil in a large vase, 
this mixture being used to make the Agnus Dei. Tne 
same document shows that in the suburban churches 
wax was used while Pseudo-Alcium says that both 
wax and oil were used. 

In the Lithurgy of the Xestorians and the Syrian 
Jacobites, the elements present at the Eucharistic Con- 
secration have been prepared with oil. Among the 
Nestorians a special rubric prescribes the use of flour, 
salt, olive oil and water. 



Page thirty-eight 



From the second century the custom was established 
of administering baptism with water specially blessed 
for this purpose. Nevertheless, the sacrament was valid 
if ordinary water was used. We are not well informed 
as to the nature of the consecration of this baptismal 
water, but it must be said that the most ancient indica- 
tions and descriptions say nothing of the use of oil in 
this consecration. The first witness, Pseudo-Dionysius, 
does not go beyond the first half of the sixth century ; 
he tells us that the bishop pours oil on the water of 
the fonts in the form of a cross. There is no doubl 
that this rite was introduced at a comparatively late 
period. 

The maintenance of more or less numerous lamps in 
the churches was a source of expense which the faith- 
ful in their generosity hastened to meet by establishing 
a fund to purchase oil. The Council of Braga (572) 
decided that a third of the offerings made to the church 
should be used for purchasing oil for the light. The 
quality of oil thus consumed was greater when a lamp 
burned before a famous tomb or shrine, in which case 
it was daily distributed to pilgrims, who venerated it 
as a relic. 

Chrism is a mixture of olives and balsam, blessed 
by a bishop in a special manner, and used in the ad- 
ministration of certain sacraments and in the perform- 
ance of certain ecclesiastical functions. That chrism 
may serve as valid matter for the Sacrament of Con- 
firmation it must consist of pure oil of olives and it 
must be blessed by a Bishop, or at least by a priest 
delegated by the Holy See. These two conditions are 
certainly necessary for validity; moreover, it is prob- 
able that there should be an admixture of balsam and 
that the blessing of the chrism should be special, in the 
sense that it ought to be different from that which is 
i'iven to the oil of the sick or the oil of catechumens. 
If either of the last two conditions is wanting the sac- 
rament will be doubtfully valid. To deal with the sud- 
ject in a sufficiently exhaustive manner, it will be enough 



Pane thirty-nifii 



to touch on (1) the origin and antiquity of chrism, 
(2) its constituent nature, (3) its blessing, and (4) its 
use and symbolic significance. 

In its primitive meaning the word chrism, like the 
Greek chriona, was used to designate any and every 
substance that served the purpose of smearing or 
anointing, such as the various kinds of oils, unguents 
and pigments. This was its ordinary signification in 
profane literature, and even in the early patristic writ- 
ings. Gradually, however, in the writings of the fathers 
at all events, the term came to be restricted to that 
special kind of oil that was used in religious cere- 
monies and functions, especially in the administration 
of the Sacrament of Baptism and Confirmation. Thus 
origin refers to the visible chrism in which we have all 
been baptized. St. Ambrose venerates in the chrism 
the oil of grace which makes kings and priests ; ana 
St. Cyril of Jerusalem celebrates the praises of the 
mystic chrism. The early councils of the church have 
also references to chrism as something set apart for 
sacred purposes and making for the sanctification of 
men. Thus the Council of Constantinople held in 38i 
and the Council of Toledo, 398. Regarding the institu- 
tion of chrism, or its introduction into the sacramental 
and ceremonial system of the church, some theologians, 
among them St. Thomas and Susrex, hold that it was 
instituted immediately by Christ, while others contend 
that it is altogether of ecclesiastical origin. Eugene IV 
in his famous "Instruction for the Armenians" asserts 
that chrism is the matter of the Sacrament of Confir- 
mation, and, indeed, this opinion is so certain that it 
may not be denied without incurring some note of 
theological censure. All that the Council of Trent has 
defined in this connection is that they who attribute 
a certain spiritual and salutary efficacy to holy chrism 
do not in any way derogate from the respect and rev- 
erence due to the Holy Ghost. 

(2) Two elements enter into the constitution of 
legitimate chrism, viz., olive oil and balsam. The for- 
mer is indeed the predominating, as well as the prin- 
cipal ingredient, b-t the latter must be added in greater 



Page forty 



oi lesser quantity, if not for reasons of validity, at all 
events in obedience to a grave ecclesiastical precept. 
Frequent reference is made in the Old Testament to 
the use of oil in religious ceremonies. It was employer 1 
in the coronation of kings, in the consecration of the 
high priests, and in the ordination of the Levites, aim, 
indeed, it figured very prominently in the Mosaic ordi- 
nances generally, as can he abundantly gathered Iron 
Exodus, Leviticus and Deuteronomy. Such being the 
prevailing usage of the Old Testament in adopting 
olive oil for religious ceremonies, it is no cause for 
wonder that it also came to receive under the New 
Dispensation a certain religious recognition and ap- 
proval. The second element that enters into the con- 
stitution of genuine chrism is balsam. This is an aro- 
matic, resinous substance that is extracted from the 
wood of certain trees or plants, especially those be- 
longing to the terebinthine group or family. In the 
manufacture of this sweet-smelling unguent the early 
Greek-Christians were wont to employ as many as forty 
different perfumed species or essences. In the beginning 
of the Christian era balsam was obtained from Judea 
and from Arabia, but in modern times it is also pro- 
duced, and in superior quality, in the West Indies. The 
first mention of balsam as an ingredient in the con- 
position of chrism seems to be found in the "Gregorian 
Sacramentary,'' as work belonging to the sixth cen- 
tury. Now, however, according to existing legislation, 
the additional balsam is requisite for lawful chrism, but 
whether it is necessary for the validity of the sacra- 
ment, assuming that chrism is the matter of confirma- 
tion, is a matter about which theologians do not agree. 
The modern view appears to be that it is not so re- 
quired. But owing to the uncertainty mere olive oil 
alone would be doubtful matter and could not therefore 
be employed apart from very grave necessity. 

(3) For proper and legitimate chrism the blessing 
bv a bishoo is necessary, and probably, too, such a 
blessing as is peculiar to it alone. That the bishop is the 
ordinary minister of this blessing is certain. So much 
is amply recognized in all the writings of the early 



Page forty-one 



centuries, by the early councils ; the Second Council oi 
Carthage of 390, and the Third Council of Braga, 572 
and by all modern theologians. But whether a priest 
may be the extraordinary minister of this blessing, and 
if so, in what circumstances — this is a question that is 
more or less freely discussed. It seems agreed that the 
Pope may delegate a priest for this purpose, but it is 
not so clear that bishops can bestow the same delegated 
authority exjure ordinario. They exercised, it seems, 
this prerogative in former times in the East, but the 
power of delegating priests to bless chrism is now 
strictly reserved to the Holy See in the Western church 
The rites employed in consecrating" the sacred chrism 
go to show that it is a ceremony of the highest im 
portance. Formerly it could be blessed on any day of 
the year, according as necessity arose. Now, however, 
it must be blessed during the solemn mass on Holy 
Thursday. For the full solemn ceremonial the conse- 
crating prelate should be assisted by twelve priests, 
seven deacons, and seven subdeacons. The oil and 
balsam, being prepared in the sacristy beforehand, ar : 
carried in solemn procession to the sanctuary after the 
communion, and placed on a table. Then the balsam, 
held on a silver salver, is blessed, and similarly the 
olive oil, which is reserved in a silver jar. After this 
the balsam is mixed with the oil. Then the chrism, 
being perfected with a final prayer, receives the homage 
of all the sacred ministers present, each making a triple 
genuflection toward it. and each time saying the words, 
"Ave sanctum chrisma." After the ceremony it is taken 
back to the sacristy and distributed among the priests, 
who take it away in silver vessels commonly called 
oil-stocks, that which remains being securely and rev- 
erently guarded under lock and key. 

(4) Chrism is used in the administration of the 
Sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation and Holy Or- 
ders, in the consecration of churches, chalices, patens, 
altars, and altar stones, and in the solemn blessing of 
bells and baptismal water. The head of the newly 
baptized is anointed with chrism, the forehead of the 
person confirmed, the head and hands of a bishop at 

Page forty-two 



his consecration, and the hands of a priest at his ordi- 
nation. So are the walls of churches, which are sol- 
emnly consecrated, anointed with the same holy oil, and 
the parts of the sacred vessels used in the mass which 
come in contact with the Sacred Species, as the paten 
and chalice. If it he asked why chrism has been intro- 
duced into the functions of the church liturgy, a reason 
is found in its special fitness for this purpose by reason, 
of its symbolic significance. For olive oil being of its 
own nature rich, diffusive, and abiding, is fitted to repre- 
sent the copious outpouring of sacramental grace, while 
balsam, which gives forth most agreeable and fragrant 
odors, typifies the innate sweetness of Christian virtue. 
Oil also gives strength and suppleness to the limbs, 
while balsam preserves from corruption. Thus, apoint- 
mg with chrism aptty signifies that fulness of grace and 
spiritual strength by which we are enabled to resist the 
contagion of sin and produce the sweet flowers of 
virtue. "For wc are the good odor of Christ unto 
God." 

In conclusion it readily can be seen that the olive 
tree and its fruit have played a wonderful and con- 
spicuous part in the history of the human race. 

From the ancient crowning of rulers and athletes 
with garlands made from its leaves, the placing of 
tiie boughs about the beloved dead, the race of primi- 
tive man that by its nourishing fruit and oil was kept 
from starvation and death, to the opening up of avenues 
of trade where otherwise there would have been no 
commerce, until the present days, the olive is famous 
a. id always will continue to be. 

Few substances have had the same fame, the same 
varied history, the same uplifting value that olive oil 
has had. It contributes not only to the nourishment 01 
health, but also to the suppleness and beauty of the 
body; it has served as an anointing oil with which 
priests were elevated to the privilege of performing the 
sacred rights of the temple, using at their discretion 
both then and now the blessed oil in the solemn rites 
of the church. Kings and rulers were anointed with it, 
tli at the blessing of God might rest upon them, giving 



Page forty-thi et 



them grace to rule wisely the people under them. Great 
indeed would be the calamity to us, these people of 
modern times, if the olive orchards should become bar- 
ren, the trees cease to yield their fruit, and the cruse 
of oil become empty. , 




Page forty-four 




000 917 683 4 



